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what social or legal distinctions existed in the roman world that paul was addressing here?

Adds the setting and its conversation across both testaments.

Romans 13:1-7

“Let every soul be in subjection to the higher authorities, for there is no authority except from God, and those who exist are ordained by God. Therefore he who resists the authority withstands the ordinance of God; and those who withstand will receive to themselves judgment. For rulers are not a terror to the good work, but to the evil. Do you desire to have no fear of the authority? Do that which is good, and you will have praise from the same, for he is a servant of God to you for good. But if you do that which is evil, be afraid, for he doesn’t bear the sword in vain; for he is a servant of God, an avenger for wrath to him who does evil. Therefore you must be in subjection, not only because of wrath, but also for conscience’ sake. For this reason you also pay tribute, for they are servants of God’s service, attending continually to this very thing. Therefore give everyone what you owe: tribute to whom tribute is due; customs to whom customs; respect to whom respect; honor to whom honor.”

Paul wrote this letter to the church in Rome, a diverse community of Jewish and Gentile believers, likely in the mid-50s CE. He was addressing various aspects of Christian life and teaching, including how believers should relate to the governing powers of the Roman Empire, which ruled over them.

How might our understanding of 'authority' be shaped by the specific social and legal structures we live under, and what does this passage ask of us in that context?

Then — the setting

Paul wrote Romans around 57 CE from Corinth. The Roman Empire was at its height, and emperors were increasingly deified, especially after death, with living emperors also receiving cultic honors. The Roman legal system, with its concepts of citizenship, provincial governance, and military power, was the pervasive reality. The passage was likely written during the early reign of Nero, which began relatively peaceably, before his later persecutions of Christians. The Roman population was stratified by citizenship (Roman citizens, Latin citizens, peregrini or 'foreigners'), social class (senators, equites, plebs, slaves), and legal status, all under the ultimate authority of the Emperor. Paul's audience included both Roman citizens and non-citizens, and his instruction on obedience would have applied to all, but with different implications depending on their specific legal standing and vulnerability within the Roman system.

Across the Testaments

In the Old Testament, authorities are often depicted as instruments of God's will, both for blessing (e.g., Cyrus in Isaiah 45:1) and judgment (e.g., Assyria/Babylon). There's a strong emphasis on justice and righteousness for rulers (Psalm 72). However, there's also a narrative of prophets confronting kings when they violate God's law (e.g., Nathan confronting David, Elijah confronting Ahab). Romans 13 echoes the general principle of divine ordination of rulers (e.g., Proverbs 8:15-16), but the New Testament, especially in later writings like Revelation, also portrays governing powers as potentially demonic or in opposition to God (Revelation 13:1-10), particularly when they demand worship or persecute believers. This suggests a tension: authorities are ordained by God, yet they can also become corrupt and oppressive, requiring believers to discern when to obey God rather than humans (Acts 5:29).

Keep thinking

Read alongside it

1 Peter 2:13-17
Offers similar instruction to submit to governing authorities 'for the Lord’s sake'.
Matthew 22:15-22
Jesus' teaching on paying taxes to Caesar, distinguishing earthly and divine allegiance.
Daniel 3:1-18
An example of faithful refusal to obey a state command that conflicts with religious conviction.

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